ࡱ>  Qbjbj I&NO00OIfSZSL?L?LSL777NN%f7770O7777S777777777 : TEACHING The concept of Velocity in mathematics classes Regina Dorothea Mller University Erfurt, F. R. Germany regina.moeller@uni-erfurt.de The genesis of the concept of velocity refers to a centuries-old search within the context of motion. This led to Newton's definition which is still taught in school. The historical development shows that both mathematics and physics classes have their respective characteristic manner using this term. However the mathematical potential for teaching this concept is by far not exhausted. Introduction Motion is a characteristic of our world. Mankind and animals move naturally within a range of long or short distances. Plants move too, however since they stay at one place we do not call the stretching into the ground and into the air a motion. The way animals move depends on their body structure: some fly, run or swim. Humans can do all this too, some using technical equipment. In our time, we use technical achievements which enable us to travel distances in different velocities: bicycles, cars, ships, trains, airplanes and even rockets. With the use of technical equipment our perception of velocity and their imprints on human bodies has changed. In the last century a train with a velocity of 60 km per hour was considered fast. Today this is a normal speed on a highway. The concept of velocity is one with a long tradition. Embedded in the concept of motion already Greek mathematicians, especially Aristotle (384-322 BC), had ideas about velocity which he combined with his observations of the free fall. Before the next step was done by Galilei (1564-1642), Nicole of Oresme (c. 1360) used graphic representation of changing qualities. Later Galilei used experiments to argue for the statement that there is a quadratic relationship between the distance travelled and the falling time. Even later Newton (1642-1727) defined velocity using the concept of force that initiates motion. Leibniz (1646-1716) developed the differential and integral computation also considering the idea of (planetary) movements. Speed problems can be found on every level of math classes. On the elementary level, they are looked upon as physical applications and are solved arithmetically. On the secondary level they are used to show functional perspectives and later differentiation is used to compute instant velocity. However, although speed is an integral part of our modern society, a red line of development of the concept of velocity is not apparent in math (and physics) classes throughout the levels. One observes an emphasis on the computational aspect under which the ideas that have led to the possible to computations, have disappeared (e.g. Doorman & van Maanen, 2008). First, a summary of the development of the concept of velocity is given starting with some inherent philosophical aspects. This review results in a recommendation for teaching the concept of velocity using Vollraths conceptual framework (1984). The formulated steps include some historical ideas concerning the development to enable the teacher students during their studies and teachers to reflect on their understanding before planning to teach this concept in class. PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL ASPECTS In the following sections, two aspects are discussed: Firstly, the formal definition of the concept of velocity was preceded by a struggle for a clarification of the concept of motion. Secondly, the concept of velocity embodies a circular reasoning. Although a lot of the work of Archimedes (287-212 BC) concerning mechanics is transmitted and gives an idea of his far-reaching mathematical understanding, we have no clear idea what he understood by velocity. Assured work is passed on us of Aristotle (384-322 BC), who investigated the phenomenon of motion qualitatively and verbally (Aristotle, Physics, 1829). He distinguished three types of motion: motion in undisturbed order, such as the celestial spheres, the earthy motion such as the concept of the rise and fall, and the violent motion of bodies that needs an impulse (cf. Hund, 1996, p.29). Although his remarks touched the phenomenon of velocity, his conceptions proved wrong later on: "Aristotle came close to the concept of velocity when in the sixth book, the words faster (longer distance in the same time, same route in shorter time) and the same speed are explained (Hund, 1996, p.30). Galilei (1564-1642) succeeded in a better understanding of the concept of velocity, as he did not rely on his direct perception: "The means of scientific evidence was invented by Galilei and used for the first time. It is one of the most significant achievements, which boasts our intellectual history [...]. Galilei showed that one cannot always refer to intuitive conclusions based on immediate observation because they sometimes lead to the wrong track" (Einstein, 1950, p.17). Only Newton (1643-1726) introduced the concepts of absolute time and absolute space and opened up the exact relationship between force and motion: The power does not get the motion upright (Aristotle), but it causes its change (acceleration). While Aristotle argued by inspection, Newton made an abstraction, as he looked upon length and time as not necessarily bounded materially. In today's linguistic usage, we understand motion as a change in position in the (Euclidean) space over a certain period of time. Lengths and time periods are conditions for the quantification of such motions. On this basis, the (average) velocity is defined as the quotient of the distance travelled over the time required. A circular argument is obvious on closer inspection: time depends on a movement and vice versa, because time is measured using motion (Mauthner, 1997, vol 3, p. 438.). In the hourglass sand runs through, in an analogous clock the pointer moves, and for the period of a year, we follow the cycle of the earth around the sun. Likewise, the idea of space is connected to motion, for only through movement we perceive the space. Mauthner said: "His [The people, note of the author] language makes it impossible for him to understand the metaphorical tautology of the preposition in. Only rigorous reflection will enable him, to at least understanding the metaphorical of the preposition (in time). In space means something like in the space of the room, for the time as much as in the space of time (ibid, p. 443). Even Piaget refers to this circular argument: "Speed is defined as a relationship between space and time - but time can be measured solely on the basis of a constant velocity" (Piaget, 1996, p.69). For him the concepts of space, time and speed are mutually dependent. MATHEMATICAL ASPECTS OF THE VELOCITY CONCEPT Towards a functional terminology of velocity Oresme (ca. 1320-1382) sought the help of experiments to assign a rate of change to certain intensities and concluded: All things are measurable with the exception of numbers . (Pfeiffer, Dahan-Dalmedico, 1994, p. 228ff.). The difficulties mathematicians had at that time is well summarized there. The reasoning of Aristotle and Galilei were based on their observations of linear motions. However, both had also planetary motions in mind. For motions on a curved path you need two different aspects: the direction and the magnitude of a velocity vector. It is this distinction which led, in modern terms, to a vectorial description and thus to a further clarification of the concept of velocity, which is thus a generalization of the concept of velocity on a straight line. Bodies on a straight line have the same speed, in the same direction and the same quantity. Since then, the following statement is true: the change in force and velocity are vectors with the same direction (Einstein, 1950, p. 38). We observe an idea of permanence, because all statements that apply to velocities along curved paths must also apply to linear trajectories. The cause of this observation is given by an idealized thought experiment, which confirmed the theory (cf. Einstein, S.25ff.); this is yet another idea that came to an effect only at the time of Galilei. Since then, the mathematical language has been used in physics to reason for not only qualitative but also quantitative conclusions. As soon as you engage in quantitative calculations, one deals with quantities (Gren). With respect to the concept of velocity you have the dimension (the quotient of distance and time) and the measured value (an element of real numbers), which is a composite physical quantity. Griesel analysed the subject matter of quantities on the primary level (length, weight, time periods) (1973, vol. 2, p.55ff.) as a technical background for the didactics of quantities. This presentation does not fit the quantity of velocity (and is not mentioned there) because it requires a description as an element of a vector space, which can be higher than one-dimensional. An analysis of the mathematics of physical quantities can be found in Whitney (1968). He systematically described simple and compound quantities with means of linear algebra. This mathematical framework allows to consider a treatment of the velocity both in vectorial and elementary, one-dimensional form. However this mathematical approach has not been made fruitful for school reality, and in general it can be stated that the "quantities are not taught systematically" (Kienle, 1994, p. 42), especially not in vocational schools which has been criticized for some time (cf. Strer, 1996). However, Freudenthal (1973, vol.1, p.188) argues that one can interpret dimensional designations as a function sign; an idea that was not previously addressed in class. Another functional aspect occurs in two ways with the concept of velocity: The distance-time function leads with considering of the difference quotients to the average speed and the transition to differential quotient to instantaneous velocities that are themselves again functions, namely, the velocity-time functions. It has taken over 2000 years for the concept of velocity to be defined consistently out of the concept of motion - in today's usage an act of mathematical modelling. It is therefore a prime example of a mathematical and interdisciplinary concept development - with both mathematical and physical - mechanical - representations throughout history. The intuitive conclusions drawn by Aristotle led to difficulties and proved much later untenable. Only an idealized thought experiment led eventually to a verifiable physical theory. The concept of velocity is an example of a mathematical modelling of a qualitative knowledge with more potentials as there are quantitative statements and other insights. The knowledge of such phenomena, the resulting misconceptions and the trodden paths of knowledge are essential components of mathematical education and exemplify scientific processes. The genesis also shows a potential for didactical perspectives of mathematics education. Despite the scarce representation of this topic in mathematics class (in many curricula of the German provinces the concept of velocity is only mentioned only one time on the secondary level; in Bildungsstandards, 2003, 2012) there are a diversity of ideas which can be reflected. DIDACTIC CONSEQUENCES This example shows again, that the mathematical subject matter is not the first philosophy in mathematics education (cf. Ernest, 2013). Although of great importance for the development of mathematical and physical theory, it plays only the role of a physical application in mathematics classrooms. Hidden under algorithmic manipulations, the ideas that lead to the definition of concept of velocity do not show to pupils in class. Since this topic also disappears during teacher training, there is an extra afford needed to pull the history into the light. This afford can be done in three ways: there is a chronology of historic development which can be shown on a line. There is the genesis which makes apparent who under which presumptions found a concept or an algorithm. And last but not least the narratives that are carries along to influence at least the speed in which new ideas are accepted (Drfler, 2014).   The genesis of the concept of velocity is influenced by interdisciplinarity for centuries. Therefore, it is wrong to neglect it in mathematics education by pointing to the physics education or to avoid it in the classroom at all. In mathematics teaching, it owns several important functions: Basic everyday experiences relate to the phenomena of velocity and can be used on several grade levels by taking up Vollrath's idea and take seriously measurement processes as a basis of experience (Vollrath, 1980). This can be addressed in propaedeutic form at the primary level and in a quantitative manner at secondary levels. Under the current relations of applications of mathematics education, the concept of velocity is a prime example of mathematical modelling of everyday phenomena of motions which can be quantified normatively, allowing measurements and calculations. According to the current understanding these are necessarily factual and methodological skills. As a first composite quantity the concept of velocity can be addressed in lower secondary education at many occasions. Before getting to the usual algorithmization (van Maanen, 2009) teaching this concept allows for teaching the fundamental idea of measuring. This is a valuable and vital contribution to the implementation of the rules in the educational standards and curricula and guiding principles would be met. The implementation of the items listed would be an important part in promoting mathematics education. To arrive at an overall conception of the concept of velocity in mathematics education, according to Vollrath a strategy is required (Vollrath, 1984, p.14), which leads from an intuitive to a structured taxonomy. The following steps outline the procedure scheme which could have in mind before teaching the respective classes (Vollrath, 1984, S.202ff). It would mean to get a clear view on the subject matter and teach perhaps more than what is given by the textbooks: The concept as a phenomenon (intuitive understanding of the concept) They recognize that the feature of the motion is the continuous change of position of the objects. for describing motion two quantities, length and time intervals, are required. with a constant distance the one object is faster that needs less time. Conversely, at constant time, the object is faster that has travelled a longer distance. The second term and his wealth aspect (constructive understanding of the term) They recognize that rest and motion of a body are always give relative to a reference system. with a rectilinear and uniform motion in equal intervals of time, equal distances are covered. for a linear and non-uniform motion the same time intervals can be covered in different journeys. for a linear and uniform motion, velocity can be described as the ratio v = s / t. The concept is a carrier of properties (substantive understanding of the term) They recognize that for mathematical calculations of the body and the mass, they are idealized to a point. the ratio (s / (t possess a constant (average) value relative to the total distance and total time. at constant velocity (s to (t proportional. the quantity velocity possesses the dimension "distance per time" with the units m / s or km / h. The concept as a tool for problem solving (problem-oriented understanding of the term) They can bring the definition v = s / t into relation to everyday life contexts. calculate uniform velocity. appreciate that the concept of velocity is a fundamental physical phenomenon that can be described quantitatively by mathematical means. The discussion of the velocity concept in the context of the stage scheme shows the potential that this concept already has in mathematics education. From this more elaborated standpoint the potential for the interdisciplinary character can be developed further and more in detail. The four steps in the concept development to enlighten teacher students in their knowledge of this topic also gives a good background to approach the topic in an ethical manner (Ernest, 2013). It is essential for their teaching to have a grip on solid knowledge and cultural heritage in the subject matter they are to teach. 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Wundt, S. 337-419 Ludwig Lange (1886): Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Bewegungsbegriffs und ihr voraussichtliches Endergebnis, Schluss in: Philosophische Studien III, Hrsg. W. Wundt, S. 643-691 Mauthner, Fritz (1997, Neuauflage): Wrterbuch der Philosophie, Band 3, Bhlau Verlag, Wien Pfeiffer, Jeanne/Dahan-Dalmedico, Amy (1994): Wege und Irrwege Eine Geschichte der Mathematik, Birkhuser, Basel Piaget, Jean, Einfhrung in die genetische Erkenntnistheorie, 6. Auflage, Frankfurt/M. 1996, S. 69. Strer, Rudolf (1996): Professionelles Rechnen, Zum mathematischen Unterricht in Berufsschulen, math. did. 19, Bd.1, S. 67-92 Vollrath, Hans-Joachim (1968): Die Geschichtlichkeit der Mathematik als didaktisches Problem, Neue Sammlung, S. 108-112. Vollrath, Hans-Joachim (1978): Rettet die Ideen!, Der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Unterricht 31, 449-455 Vollrath, Hans-Joachim (1978): Lernschwierigkeiten, die sich aus dem umgangssprachlichen Verstndnis geometrischer Begriffe ergeben, Schriftenreihe des IDM 18, S. 57-73 Vollrath, Hans-Joachim (1980): Sachrechnen, Klett Vollrath, Hans-Joachim (1984): Methodik des Begriffslehrens im Mathematikunterricht, Klett, S. 202ff. Vollrath, Hans-Joachim (1987): Strungen des didaktischen Gleichgewichts im Mathematikunterricht, in: Der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Unterricht 40, S. 373-378 Bildungsstandards im Fach Mathematik fr den Mittleren Schulabschluss, KMK 4.12.2003 Bildungsstandards im Fach Mathematik fr die Allgemeine Hochschulreife, (KMK 18.10.2012)       !789:PQRcrsͼﭛvbNbG@6@6h h 6] hF{6] hp6]&hph@75;CJOJQJ^JaJ&hphp5;CJOJQJ^JaJ&hph 5;CJOJQJ^JaJ hp5;CJOJQJ^JaJ#hphp;CJOJQJ^JaJhp;CJOJQJ^JaJ hph@7CJOJQJ^JaJ hph CJOJQJ^JaJ hphF{CJOJQJ^JaJ hphr3CJOJQJ^JaJ9:QRs # 5 4 !""gd<gd  ]^gdpgd'N dgdp  6    " # - / 5 @ D u   ) 0 4 5 C W X Y \ ` d f m q  : ? M X b k   ! 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